For the forced-choice outcome, abuses by out-group perpetrators had a 6 percentage point higher marginal mean of disapproval (0.53) than those by in-group perpetrators (0.47), a difference three times larger than any other group identity variable.
6 percentage point higher
[1] 6
(0.53)
[1] 0.53
(0.47)
[1] 0.47
three times larger
[1] 3
This pattern is consistent in the ratings-based outcome, where out-group perpetrators had a higher marginal mean of disapproval (0.72) than in-group perpetrators (0.70).
(0.72)
[1] 0.72
(0.70)
[1] 0.7
Religion produced a 2 percentage point higher marginal mean of disapproval (0.51) for religious in-groups in the forced-choice outcome compared to out-groups (0.49) and a 1 percentage point higher marginal mean of disapproval in the ratings-based outcome (0.69 vs. 0.68).
2 percentage point higher
[1] 2
(0.51)
[1] 0.51
(0.49)
[1] 0.49
1 percentage point higher
[1] 1
(0.69 vs. 0.68)
[1] 0.69
[1] 0.68
Among Democrats, forced-choice disapproval (panel a) increased by 4–6 percentage points when violations were perpetrated by an out-group Republican president or governor (0.52, 0.53 respectively) compared to an in-group Democrat president or governor (0.47, 0.48 respectively).
4–6 percentage points
[1] 4
[1] 6
(0.52, 0.53 respectively)
[1] 0.52
[1] 0.53
(0.47, 0.48 respectively)
[1] 0.47
[1] 0.48
Among Republicans, the difference is greater: disapproval (panel c) increased by 7–10 percentage points when the perpetrator was an out-group Democrat president or governor (0.54, 0.55 respectively) compared to an in-group Republican president or governor (0.44, 0.47 respectively).
7–10 percentage points
[1] 7
[1] 10
(0.54, 0.55 respectively)
[1] 0.54
[1] 0.55
(0.44, 0.47 respectively)
[1] 0.44
[1] 0.47
For violations targeting a respondents’ racial in-group, forced-choice disapproval was 6 percentage points lower for in-group perpetrators (0.49) compared to out-group partisan perpetrators (0.55).
6 percentage points lower
[1] -6
(0.49)
[1] 0.49
(0.55)
[1] 0.55
However, in-group perpetrators targeting religious or citizenship in-groups faced little backlash, with 7–8 percentage points lower forced-choice disapproval (both 0.47) than out-group perpetrators (0.54, 0.55 respectively).
7–8% lower
[1] -7
[1] -8
(both 0.47)
[1] 0.47
[1] 0.47
(0.54, 0.55 respectively)
[1] 0.54
[1] 0.55
